Tag: philosophy

Courses Taught

On By Bin SongIn TeachingLeave a comment

Introduction to Philosophy (PHL 100 Washington College)

This course introduces the discipline of philosophy and its characteristic habits of thought and practice. Starting from the beginning of Western philosophy at ancient Greek, classical and contemporary readings are organized both chronically and thematically. Students will get familiar with major sub-disciplines and problems in philosophy such as metaphysics, ethics, logic, philosophy of science, hermeneutics, philosophy of religion, and political philosophy. Non-western philosophical traditions such as Ruism (Confucianism) and Buddhism will also be introduced in order to broaden conventional philosophical vistas. In general, the course is designed as reflecting philosophically and multi-culturally upon major divisions of human knowledge in modern university: religion, humanities, natural science, and social science.

History of Modern Philosophy (PHL 214 Washington College)

“History of Modern Philosophy” introduces major thinkers and schools of thought in the history of modern philosophy. Part I on “Enlightenment” investigates the major achievement, and the social and political background of modern philosophy. Part II on “Modern Scientific Revolution” introduces the scientific origin of the ideological transformations that define modern philosophy. Finally, Part III delves into the details of three representing modern philosophers’ thought: Descartes’ rationalism, Hume’s empiricism and the Kantian synthesis. Special acquired skills: students will learn how to make short videos to introduce their philosophical ideas to the public.

For a teaching documentary, please click here.

Ru and Confucianism (PHL/REL 394 Washington College)

This course introduces the philosophical concepts, sociological foundation, political implementation, and spiritual/religious practices of the Asian Ru (Confucian) tradition. While remaining sensitive to its varying characteristics through different historical periods, the course also presents Ruism’s development across Asian countries such as Korea, Japan, Vietnam and Indonesia, and studies its historical interaction with Western cultures. Students are encouraged to think over and practice Ruist insights in a broader context of philosophical and religious studies, while being able to compare it with other major Asian and Western philosophical and religious traditions. Special acquired skills: students will learn Meditation in Motion in its varying forms, such as breathing, sleeping, quiet-sitting and Taiji martial arts, to strengthen their mind-body general well-being and increase creativity and productivity.

For a 2018 teaching documentary, please click here.

For a 2020 Spring teaching documentary, please click here.

Introduction to Comparative Religion: Eastern (PHL/REL 112 Washington College)

This introductory course of Eastern religions aims to increase religious literacy on the philosophical, societal, and practical aspects of four major Eastern religions: Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism (Ruism), and Daoism. While focusing on the discussion of Eastern religions, historical and cultural distinctions of major Asian countries and areas, such as India, Nepal, Tibet, China, and Japan, will also be studied.

For a teaching documentary, please click here.

Foundations of Morality (PHL 225, Fall 2020, Washington College)

This course offers theoretical and applied ethics, leveraging both Western and Eastern moral philosophies to address challenges inherent in leading a virtuous and good human life. Students will explore moral philosophies including virtue ethics, deontology, utilitarianism, stoicism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. Additionally, they will examine cognitive fallacies that can engender self-defeating emotional and behavioral patterns, such as perfectionism, damnation, bandwagon thinking, stereotyping, and lack of empathy. No prerequisites are required.

Global Wisdom and Literature (ENG/PHL/REL 294, 2022 Fall, Washington College, co-taught with Prof. Courtney Rydel from the English department.)

“Global Wisdom and Literature” (PHL/ENG 294, 2022 FALL) introduces and studies global wisdom traditions in an interdisciplinary endeavor of literary studies, philosophy, and religious studies. From the Mesopotamian mythology of Gilgamesh to the early modern Japanese Buddhist poetry of Matsuo Basho; from the rational self-defense of Socrates in the Apology to the passionate longing for the ineffable God mused by Sufis in Islamic mysticism; from the varying cities of the Roman Empire which signpost the Christian spiritual journey of Augustine in his Confessions to the downfall of the Confucian harmony of Tang Dynasty of China lamented by Du Fu’s Spring View, the great human tradition of global wisdom and literature will be explored to overcome the barriers of history, geography, ideology, genre, and academic disciplines. With the instruction and guidance of two WC professors (Prof. Courtney E. Rydel and Prof. Bin Song), students will be expected to acquire skills of intercultural and interdisciplinary competence which is pivotal to the real-world value of contemporary liberal arts education. This class counts for the distribution of Humanities and Fine Arts, the English major and minor, the Philosophy major and minor, the Religious Studies minor, the Humanities major, and the Medieval and Early Modern Studies minor. No Prerequisite.

Euro-Eccentrism: the Enlightenment and Confucianism (PHL/REL 494, 2023 Fall, Washington College)
This course explores the ways how Western philosophy during the Enlightenment period (17th and 18th centuries) was developed under the influence of Confucianism with a focus on the works of Spinoza, Nicolas Malbranche, Leibniz, Christian Wolff, Voltaire, and Benjamin Franklin. It aims to provide a deeper understanding of the intertwining of Western and Non-Western Philosophies in history, and how the exchange and influence of different cultures and philosophies shape the development of human thought. The course examines the interactions between Asia and the West through trade, missionary activity, and cultural exchange, and how Confucianism was understood and adapted by these key Enlightenment thinkers. The larger context of the course is to diversify the philosophy curriculum currently taught in American universities and colleges. Through primary and secondary sources analysis, contemplative and reflective activities, and research paper, students will gain a fuller and critical understanding of modern philosophy, particularly regarding its Euro-Eccentric dimension.

Buddhism: Philosophy, Meditation and Ritual (PHL/REL 294, 2024 Fall, Washington College, co-taught with Prof. Jon McCollum at the Music department)

This course offers an in-depth introduction of Buddhism’s origins, evolution, and manifestations across various cultures. Co-taught by Professors Bin Song (Philosophy and Religion) and Jon McCollum (Music), it delves into Buddhism’s journey from its Hindu roots to its development into Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana traditions in both Asian and Western contexts. Covered topics include philosophical principles, meditative practices, and cultural expressions such as rituals and monasticism, examining their interaction with society and politics. Leveraging interdisciplinary expertise in philosophy, theology, religious studies, ritual studies, ethnography, and musicology, this course aims to provide students with a comprehensive understanding of Buddhism’s societal and personal impacts. It motivates students to explore practical and philosophical insights that enhance their intercultural competency, leadership skills, and overall well-being. No prerequisites are required.

Free Will and the Foundations of Responsibility (First Year Seminar, 2025 Fall, Washington College)

Are we free? What does it mean to have free will, and why does it matter? This First-Year Seminar explores the timeless philosophical problem of free will, a question that connects deeply to moral responsibility, legal accountability, self-development, and well-being. Students will examine key positions in contemporary philosophy, such as compatibilism and incompatibilism, as well as concepts like determinism and the theory of alternative possibilities. Through analyzing arguments and counterarguments, students will develop critical thinking skills to understand, evaluate, and imagine solutions to these enduring questions. The course also explores contributions from science—quantum mechanics, neuroscience, and social psychology—to see how empirical findings inform this ongoing debate. By the end of the course, students will formulate their own views on free will and learn how to apply these ideas to personal growth, academic challenges, and future careers.

Courses under Preparation:

  • History of Contemporary Philosophy (19th centuries onward)
  • Philosophy of Mind

Shared Teaching Experience:

Student Demonstrations in Philosophical Counseling

On By Bin SongIn Counseling, TeachingLeave a comment

Fall 2025 has been a remarkably fruitful teaching season. I taught a First-Year Seminar on “Free Will and Responsibility” for the first time, with fifteen excellent first-year students. I also co-taught “Introduction to Buddhism” for the second time, which surveyed Buddhist thought from ancient India through all major historical and modern branches across different countries, regions, and continents. Most importantly, I taught “Foundations of Morality” for the third time, enrolling nineteen students.

The first half of “Foundations of Morality” is theoretical, covering major Western ethical traditions, including Aristotelian virtue ethics, Stoicism, medieval Christian ethics, Kantian deontology, Mill’s utilitarianism, and existentialism, as well as foundational elements of Buddhist and Confucian (Ruist) ethics. The second half of the course is entirely practical. I used Dr. Elliot Cohen’s The New Rational Therapy: Thinking Your Way to Serenity, Success, and Profound Happiness (Jason Aronson, 2006) and the framework of Logic-Based Therapy (LBT)—a philosophically sophisticated form of cognitive behavioral therapy—to apply ethical theory to practical questions of the good life, such as how to address self-defeating emotions and behaviors.

Throughout the semester, I experimented with a variety of hands-on, in-class practices, including contemplative listening, silent quiet-sitting meditation, ethical case studies, assignments involving the creation of fictional “cults,” and simulated philosophical counseling sessions. The final project required students to develop their own case using anonymous, fictional, or publicly known figures, and then apply philosophical and religious resources to address the case by following the structured method of LBT.

I am proud of the students’ final projects, and several stand out as particularly strong examples:

Isabella M. Sorhegui analyzes the case of Nick Kyrgios, a well-known professional tennis player. Her careful and nuanced use of Buddhist resources is especially admirable.

John Colby Andrews takes up the video game Skull Kid, beginning with humorous and satirical critiques of moralistic teaching and later developing a thoughtful and well-supported engagement with Confucian wisdom.

Chase Corley analyzes the case of Kevin Love, a prominent NBA player. As a student-athlete himself, Chase demonstrates a strong sensitivity to the psychological dimensions of athletic life and shows real potential as a future coach.

Kayla Noyala approached the project with exceptional seriousness. She conducted an interview with an anonymous family member and offered well-grounded and thoughtful philosophical guidance.

Stefanos L. Georgiou wrote a fictional case centered on a student football player and delivered a very strong final presentation. He took seriously the feedback I offered on his two earlier case-study essays and worked diligently to revise both his thinking and his writing style. The final presentation is detailed, well-balanced, and something of which I am very proud:

Daniel Poitevin’s role-play project is particularly impressive. He alternated between the roles of therapist and counselee with clarity, insight, and philosophical depth.

At a broader level, I advocate an integrated approach to mental health and the good life. In areas of human life where free will and responsibility continue to play a meaningful role, philosophy—and the humanities more generally—can and should make substantial contributions to healthy living. However, when psychological conditions are rooted primarily in physiology and free will plays little or no role, the traditional doctor–patient medical model of mental health must still be employed. This integrated framework underlies my approach to philosophical counseling in this course. By teaching it within a public liberal arts classroom, and in a manner appropriate to that setting, I also aim to experiment with ways of teaching “self-cultivation” inspired by the Confucian (Ruist) tradition.

Why The ‘May Fourthers’ Were Wrong About Ruism (Confucianism): “The Three Guides’ (三綱) and ‘The Five Constant Virtues’ (五常)

On By Bin SongIn Confucianism History & PhilosophyLeave a comment
2016-07-31-1469929055-1691468-rightandwrong2.jpg

In my effort to promote Ruism among ordinary American people I have encountered a major push-back from, of all people, Chinese Americans. Most of them are either indifferent or hostile to their own tradition. But regardless of the reason, an unvarnished ignorance underlies this opposition. A recent example took place this summer when I gave a talk to the largest Chinese evangelical Christian church in the Boston area about ‘The Three Guides’ and ‘The Five Constant Virtues.’ After I finished my talk, a pious Chinese woman, around 40 years old, came up and whispered to me: “I know Ruism was the dominant tradition of ancient China, but I had never heard anything like what you were saying during your talk. After hearing what you have explained about Ruism, I find that it is actually quite good (挺好的).” Anecdotes like this tell us that in comparison with other traditions such as Judaism, Hinduism or Roman Catholicism, most Chinese immigrants to the United States are actually an obstacle, rather than an aid, to introducing and advancing their supposed ‘home tradition’ to other Americans.

So, why is this happening? Where does this ignorance come from? As a scholar of the humanities, I have to assign the major reason to the May Fourth Movement and the radical anti-Ruist rhetoric which, in the 1910s, this movement created and afterwards was used in governing most of modern China’s public education. What happened was that, facing a national defeat by the Western colonial powers, some radically westernized Chinese intellectuals such as Lu Xun or Chen Duxiu, whom I call ‘The May Fourthers,’ invented a dualistic mindset separating East from West, and old from new. In order, they said, to surpass the West, China must give up its own culture and re-learn everything Western. For this reason, Ruist teachings such as ‘The Three Guides’ and ‘The Five Constant Virtues’ were condemned by the May Fourthers as representing the backward morals of a feudal society. They said that these ideas were hopelessly authoritarian, enslaved the independent will and spiritual freedom of individual people, and weakened Chinese cultural vitality. As a consequence, they thought, Chinese tradition must be completely jettisoned so that the Chinese people can learn the new morality of the West.

Although I appreciate the apparent sincerity of the May Fourthers’ intentions (they, after all, hoped to make China better and stronger), I nevertheless see that their racial, anti-Ruist rhetoric is as ridiculous as to say, for example, “A wise old man, punched in the face by an impetuous young guy, has to totally give up his own wisdom and identify spiritually with the young guy.” In fact, most of the May Fourthers’ criticisms of Ruism are simply wrong! In my view, in order to practice ‘The Three Guides’ and ‘The Five Constant Virtues,’ nothing more is needed than the independent spirit of individuals! In the remaining sections of this essay, I will demonstrate how this is the case.

First, a little history:

The first time that the single phrase ‘the Three Guides and the Five Constant Virtues’ (三綱五常) is mentioned in the Ruist classics was when Ma Rong (馬融, 79-166 CE) in the Eastern Han Dynasty used this phrase to comment on Analects 2:23 in order to explain the unchanging aspect of a harmonious human society. According to Ma, regardless of what happens on the outside, people must still practice Ruist ethics inwardly for human society to remain on the right track. Before Ma, it was Dong Zhongshu’s (董仲舒, 179-104 BCE) works and a later text entitled, ‘A Comprehensive Exposition in White Tiger Hall’ (白虎通義, compiled in 79 CE) that provided a separate philosophical exposition to each of the terms ‘The Three Guides’ and ‘The Five Constant Virtues’. As perhaps will be well known, the Han Dynasty (202 BCE-220 CE) was a very special period for Ruism. After other teachings, such as Legalism and Daoism, had proved not to be robust enough for maintaining a unified dynasty and an harmonious human society, Ruism was established as the state ideology. Accordingly, we can see that all those expositions about ‘the Three Guides’ and ‘the Five Constant Virtues’ which were provided by the Han Dynasty Ruists are actually a distillation of previous Ruist ethical teachings such as ‘The Five Cardinal Human Relationships‘ (五倫) and ‘The Ten Reciprocal Duties‘ (十義) from Ruism’s Pre-Qin classical period. These teachings were intended to function, and they actually did function, as a textbook version of Ruist ethics, and thus were perennially influential. In this sense, the May Fourthers were right to select these Guides and Virtues [三綱 and 五常] as representative of Ruist ethics, even though their understanding of these ideas was quite wrong.

Second, the philosophy:

The standard expression for ‘The Three Guides’ is that ‘The ruler is the guide for subjects, the father is the guide for the son, and the husband is the guide for the wife’ (君為臣綱, 父為子綱, 夫為妻綱).

The original meaning of the Chinese character, written 綱 gang, refers to the lead rope of a fishing net, and thus, by extension, it means guide, guideline, bond, or guiding principle, etc. In Ruist ethics, if X is said to be the guide (綱) for Y, it primarily connotes, first, that the relationship of X to Y is a major human relationship, and secondly, that this X-Y relationship is, in a practical sense, hierarchical, in which X takes the major and leading role while Y takes a minor and subordinate role. Therefore, both X and Y must fulfill those distinct duties which are entailed by their differing roles.

So, if X guides (綱 ) Y, it means that X must act as a moral model for Y. In other words, X has a great responsibility for instructing Y about right human behavior. In the subordinate role of Y, he or she needs to show consistent deference towards and thus, discreetly and responsibly follow X as long as a normal X-Y relationship is being maintained. Even so, to what extent can an X-Y relationship be seen as ‘normal’? The answer depends. The tradition tells us that for the ruler-subjects relationship, if a ruler continues to act badly, a minister ought to leave the state or resign after remonstration has failed three times. In more extreme cases, such as when a ruler proves to be a ruthless tyrant, revolt is urged. In the father-son relationship, if a father commits misdeeds and refuses to correct himself after his son has remonstrated three times, his son should ‘follow his father while crying and weeping’ (號泣而隨之, 禮記). This implies a persistent duty of the son to remonstrate since the father-son relationship can’t be abandoned as easily as that of ruler-subjects. For the husband-wife relationship, if a husband’s wrongdoing concerns only minor issues, the wife ought to tolerate while continuing to remonstrate, but if the misbehavior is really brutal such as killing the wife’s parents and other similar deeds that violate basic principles of human relationships, the wife has the right to a divorce (誖逆人倫，殺妻父母，廢絕綱紀，亂之大者。義絕，乃得去也”, 白虎通義).

Therefore, if there is anything that the teaching of ‘The Three Guides’ suggests to which a human being must be subordinated, it is only to one’s duties and to the universal moral principles that are entailed by each person’s distinct roles within various human relationships, rather than to any capricious human person who unjustly happens to hold authority. In relation to this, Xunzi taught us to “follow the Dao, rather than the ruler; to follow what is right, rather than the father.” If a person’s will is not firm, or if a person’s spirituality is not independent and principled, I want to ask the May Fourthers, “How could anyone be a Ruist who follows such teachings?”

The ethics of ‘The Five Constant Virtues’ is higher than those which concern ‘The Three Guides’, ‘The Five Cardinal Relationships’, or ‘The Ten Reciprocal Duties’. This is because these latter terms refer to concrete human relationships and their related duties, but meanwhile, human society is far more complex than what these terms refer to. Even when we know how to behave ourselves within three (or five) major human relationships, we still feel the need for a higher principle that can guide all human relationships. Therefore, the purpose of teaching ‘The Five Constant Virtues’ is to provide that ‘single’ principle which will apply in various occasions. These ‘Five Constant Virtues’ are Humaneness (仁, ren), Righteousness (義, yi), Ritual-Propriety (禮, li), Wisdom (智, zhi) and Trustworthiness (信, xin). I will explain these terms one by one.

The basic meaning of ‘Humaneness’ (仁, ren) is love. Ruism’s conception of love is all-encompassing. It can be as close by as one’s parents and one’s children, or in its incipient form, in the reaction one has when, seeing a baby about to fall into a well, one feels a sense of ‘commiseration’ (惻隱之心, Mencius) and is hardly able to prevent oneself from saving the baby. It can also be as distant as when tiles and stones are crushed and one feels concern and empathy for their reordering (Wang Yangming). In a word, the Ruist conception of human love is so universal that a person of humaneness is said to be able to ‘form one body with a myriad of things between Heaven and Earth.’

Nevertheless, even though human love is universal, Ruism also urges its particularization, so here we are with the virtue of ‘Righteousness’ (義, yi). The basic meaning of 義 refers to something that ‘ought’ to be done, that is, to what is right. In relation to ‘Humaneness,’ this virtue requires human beings to love appropriately in relation to particular people and in concrete situations. For example, as human beings, our love towards our own parents and children is naturally and understandably more intense than towards other people’s parents and children. However, love should not end with one’s own family. We must love other people’s parents and their children by extending our love outward from our own. In this regard, Ruism teaches us to correctly determine the value of one’s various relationships, and thus to bring about a graded form of dynamic harmony in one’s performance of various duties through a reasonable distribution of time and energy.

‘Ritual-Propriety’ (禮, li) refers to the audible and visible ways of human behavior, through which what the virtues of ‘Humaneness’ and ‘Righteousness’ require are practiced. For example, if one has good intentions to appropriately love one’s parents but does not actually practice the respectful ways for speaking, looking, hugging, or taking good care, it is hard to say that one has internalized the virtues of humaneness and righteousness in his or her person.

The virtue of Wisdom (智, zhi) balances the virtue of ‘Ritual-Propriety’ since it refers to knowledge. To know how to appropriately love is to possess wisdom. In line with the Ruist idea of dynamic harmony, the central task of human wisdom is to be thought of as knowing both the facts and values of things, and thus, of understanding how things in concrete situations can fit together based upon appropriate human reactions to that situation.

The virtue of Trustworthiness (信, xin) is mainly about one’s attitude, and thus, has no additional content compared to the other four. It requires that one sincerely practice the four aforementioned virtues, and thus really possess them (實有其德).

In a word, ‘Humaneness’ is universal human love, ‘Righteousness’ refers to how to love appropriately in concrete terms, ‘Ritual-Propriety’ is the audible and visible ways of human behavior in which ‘Humaneness’ and ‘Righteousness’ are practiced, ‘Wisdom’ is to know how to be humane, righteous, and ritually-proper using one’s deep axiological reasoning, while ‘Trustworthiness’ urges one to be sincere in the practice of these virtues, and thus, to truly own them. Overall, ‘The Five Constant Virtues’ is the principle that governs one’s behavior within various human relationships. For example, if a minister can be humane, righteous, ritually-proper, wise, and trustworthy in his or her behavior within the ruler-subjects relationship, he or she will be seen as fulfilling his or her duty of ‘loyalty’, as specified in the teaching of ‘Ten Reciprocal Duties’.

Based on this discussion, I have to ask one final question: Can we still believe, as the May Fourthers did, that the Ruist teachings of ‘The Three Guides’ and ‘The Five Constant Virtues’ represent the backward morals of a feudal society and thus are totally irrelevant to modern society? Absolutely not. In my view, every virtue listed in ‘The Five Constant Virtues’ continues to be extremely valuable for our time. Nothing need be changed in order to practice this teaching today. For ‘The Three Guides,’ we only need to make minor changes in order to adjust its social context. As I have argued in a previous essay, the ruler-subjects relationship ought to be understood as that of government-citizens, or any other hierarchical relationship in public life; the father-son relationship needs to be reformulated as that of parents-children; and the teaching about the husband-wife relationship ought to be reconsidered as one of a husband and wife who are guides for each other depending upon their differing levels of expertise. In my view, each of these adjustments is what the Ruist ethical principle of ‘The Five Constant Virtues’ requires for today’s human relationships.

In a word, I believe the teachings of ‘The Three Guides’ and ‘The Five Constant Virtues’ are still key for the realization of social harmony in every time period. May Fourthers, I have to say again, “Sorry, you were wrong. It is the Ruist tradition which is the antidote for our modern malaise!”

A Chart of Ruist Virtues

On By Bin SongIn Confucianism History & PhilosophyLeave a comment

(This article was firstly published at Huffington Post: https://www.huffpost.com/entry/a-catechism-of-ruism-conf_4_b_11607540.)

In several recent essays on dynamic harmony, the five cardinal human relationships and ten riciprocal duties, and the three guides and five constant virtues, I discussed many Ruist virtues. To help you understand the relationships among these virtues, I’ve created this Chart of Ruist Virtues. I encourage you to read the chart from the top down at first. (After you have a sense of the chart as a whole, however, you can contemplate it from any point.) Because I’ve already explained most of the terms on the chart in previous essays, I’ll focus here on the relationships between and among the terms.

The Chart in Detail

First, let’s discuss the Way of Heaven (Tian) (天道, Tiandao), which appears at the top of the chart. Tian refers to an all-encompassing, constantly creative cosmic power. Tian is the transcendent in Ruism. Literally, Dao means “the way,” but when these two terms are used together, Dao takes on a special meaning: it refers to the principle that runs through the all-encompassing power. By placing Dynamic Harmony (和, he) below The Way of Tian, we’re saying that Dynamic Harmony is the principle that runs through Tian. In other words, we can say that Dynamic Harmony is the Way of Tian. Because virtue (德) in Chinese can be extended to characterize the generic features of Tian, we can also say that Dynamic Harmony is a virtue of Tian.

The reason we can say that Dynamic Harmony is a virtue of Tian is because, as explained earlier, Tian’s creativity is all-encompassing. Everything that has ever existed, exists now, or will ever exist is brought into being by Tian and every being in the universe is part of Tian. In other words, as created by Tian, everything is and becomes together, which is the basic meaning of ‘dynamic harmony’. If we understand this, we can see that Dynamic Harmony is embedded in every aspect of this constantly-unfolding cosmic creation. We can also see that this all-encompassing force is neither anthropomorphic nor anthropocentric. In other words, Tian is not a person, nor is it exclusively focused on humans. As such, humans cannot directly access Tian per se, but must approach it through Ruist mysticism, a topic I’ll discuss in future writings.

The way humans engage with Tian concretely is to realize Dynamic Harmony in human society. We do this through the virtue of Humaneness (仁, ren). For this reason, you’ll see on the chart that the virtue of humaneness is the Way of Human Beings.

In Ruist ethics, Humaneness is the highest human virtue. In the most general sense, the virtue of Humaneness is the manifestation of Tian’s creativity within human nature. When we look in more detail, however, Humaneness includes five different facets, each of which refers to a different dimension of Humaneness:

Humaneness (仁, ren),

Righteousness (義, yi),

Ritual-Propriety (禮, li),

Wisdom (智, zhi),

Trustworthiness (信, xin)

We refer to these as the Five Constant Virtues (五常, wuchang). The Five Constant Virtues are universal principles that govern concrete human relationships. For this reason, the lower region of the chart describes how the Ruist tradition understands and describes particular human relationships.

First, let’s look at the Three Guides (三綱, sangang), a Ruist ethical understanding of three major human relationships. Originally, 君為臣綱 meant “ruler is the guide of subjects.” In a modern context, however, it ought to be understood as something like “in public life, a superior is the guide of subordinates.” This refers to relationships such as those between the state and citizens or between employer and employees. Likewise, although 父為子綱 originally meant “father is the guide of son,” a modern formulation would be something like, “parents are the guides of children.” Finally, 夫為妻綱, which originally meant “husband is the guide of wife,” should now be understood as “husbands and wives are the guides of each other, depending upon their different areas of expertise.”

The ethics of the Three Guides is a distillation of Mencius’ teachings about the Five Cardinal Human Relationships (五倫, wulun), which appear next in the chart. These relationships are parents and children, ruler and subjects, husband and wife, elder and junior, and friendship. Mencius taught that the virtues that guide each of these relationships are affective closeness (親, qin) between parents and children, righteousness (義, yi) between ruler and subjects, distinction (別, bie) between husband and wife, proper order (序, xu) between elders and juniors, and trustworthiness (信, xin) between friends.

The ethics of the Ten Reciprocal Duties (十義, shiyi) are described in an important chapter of The Book of Rites (禮記) called The Unfolding of Ritual Propriety (禮運). The text prescribes a single virtue for each person as they act out their role in these relationships. In the chart, for example, you will find that in the relationship between parents and children, parents should be guided by the virtue of parental kindness (慈, ci) and children should be guided by the virtue of filial devotion (孝, xiao). The practice of these two reciprocal duties by parents and children respectively will nurture the guiding virtue of affective closeness (親, qin) taught by Mencius in the Five Cardinal Human Relationships. This pattern of reciprocal virtues is repeated for the remaining four relationships.

The Big Picture

This chart of Ruist virtues suggests that each of us should cultivate the Five Constant Virtues — which can be seen as different facets of a single cardinal virtue, Humaneness (仁, ren) — so that we can play our roles well in a variety of human relationships. The ultimate goal is to create and sustain Dynamic Harmony in society, which is a concrete manifestation of the Dynamic Harmony of Tian’s all-encompassing creative power.

Notes on Interpretation of This Chart

When using this chart, there are two important caveats to keep in mind. First, you’ve probably noticed that some characters appear in this chart multiple times. This is because they represent different virtues depending on the context. At the top of the chart, for example, Humaneness (仁, ren) appears as the single cardinal virtue, the Way of Human Beings. In the section on the Five Constant Virtues below, however, it appears as one of the five virtues, and is taken in this context to refer to universal human love. Likewise, Righteousness (義, yi) appears in the Five Constant Virtues as the way human beings love appropriately in various situations. When Righteousness (義, yi) appears in the Five Cardinal Human Relationships, however, it is presented as the guiding virtue of the relationship between ruler and subjects and refers to the primary duty of both rulers and subjects to act appropriately toward each other.

The second caveat to keep in mind is that this chart is not intended to prescribe an ethical law that requires each Ruist to understand and practice these virtues one-by-one. This chart doesn’t contain every virtue cherished by Ruists over the past 2,500 years — after all, society is far too complex to be described by a single chart, and the ways in which each of us manifest these virtues in our daily lives will depend a great deal on the context in which we live.

So, although this chart is neither comprehensive nor prescriptive, it can serve as kind of reference chart to help you understand the backbone of Ruist ethical teachings. It is my hope that by studying, contemplating, and meditating on this chart, you will be better equipped to practice Ruist wisdom in your daily life.

Zhu Xi as the Reservoir of the Daoxue (道學) Movement

On By Bin SongIn Confucianism History & PhilosophyLeave a comment

Hallo, this is Dr. Bin Song at Washington College to teach Ruism, global philosophies and religions.

The Ru tradition experienced a major reboot in its second millennium after being adopted as the state ideology in Han Dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE). And there are two major historical backgrounds of this reboot. Firstly, the immigration of Buddhism and the establishment of Daoist religions stimulated Ru thinkers to create a new version of Ruism able to orient individuals’ life more comprehensively. Since seeking the genuine Dao, the Way, so as to provide guidance to all major aspects of human life is always a goal of Ru self-cultivation, these Ru thinkers referred to this historical reboot of Ruism as a Daoxue movement, and Daoxue (道學) means the learning of Dao. In English scholarship, we also call it Neo-Confucianism. Secondly, since the 8th century, the Chinese imperial system had endured a series of severe domestic and foreign threats. Ru literati therefore sought to overcome the threats and recover the ancient ideal of humane governance while creatively reinterpreting Ru classics. To such a reacting and synthesizing Daoxue movement, Zhu Xi (1130-1200)’s philosophy played the role of an intellectual reservoir into which his predecessors’ thoughts confluence and out of which later Ru thinkers derive and diverge. To evidence such a role, Zhu Xi condensed the originally expansive Ru classics into a new canon comprising four books, viz., the Great Learning, the Analects, the Mengzi and the Centrality and Commonality, and his 四书章句集注 (Commentaries of the Four Books) was thereafter officialized as a textbook for the systems of civil examination in East Asia.

Zhu Xi’s synthetic Ru philosophy, despite its extraordinary scope and complexity, pivots itself upon one singular concept, Li (理, translated alternatively as principle, pattern-principle, Pattern, or coherence, see Angle & Tiwald 2017:28-34), and aims to parse out the three phases and eight steps of self-cultivation articulated by the Great Learning which furnishes a comprehensive guide to the Ru way of life. According to the Great Learning, the realization of the ideal of peace and harmony among all under heaven rests upon the regulation of one’s state and the alignment of one’s family, which furthermore rest upon the cultivation of one’s genuine self comprising four major steps, viz., rectifying the heartmind, authenticating intentions, attaining the knowledge, and investigating things (格物, gewu). Zhu Xi maintains that the object of the ultimate step of gewu is Li, defined as “the reason why things come to be so and the rule how things ought to be so.” (Zhu 2002 Vol. 6 大学或问 An Inquiry into the Great Learning:512)For instance, the Li of a table is the sum of all the conditions which explain why the table is produced in a certain material with a certain shape so as to fit itself with all surrounding items in a given environment. Because the factual ways to fit oneself with all the others in a given context lead to the ideal state of harmonization in which all beings evolve and thrive together without undermining the essential identity of each, Li is both descriptive and prescriptive. In the natural world, Li refers to the patterns of changing realities which co-exist in the broadest ontological scale of the whole universe, viz., Tian. In the human world, Li designates the moral principles and social conventions which perfect human relationships so as to sustain the development of civilization, and hence, to manifest the cosmic harmony of Tian in the human realm.

With Li construed as such, appropriate intentions of the heartmind towards external things are those in line with Li so that one does not merely intend objectives sincerely, but also authentically. For Zhu Xi, the process of authenticating intentions to rectify the heartmind leads to the recovery of one’s genuine human nature endowed by Tian, a trope continuous with the teaching of the Mengzi and the Centrality and Commonality. And the process is characterized by accumulation, ecstasy and extrapolation. Accumulatively, one needs to broadly engage the world via activities such as reading classics, canvassing histories, studying the nature, having discussions with friends, and dealing with human affairs so as to learn each and every Li. (Zhu 2002 Vol. 6 大学或问:527-528) While one’s practical knowledge of Li continually increases, an ecstatic moment would transpire when one can comprehend the coherence of all Li in the universe, and hence, grasp the interconnection of all dimensions of moral living. (Zhu 2002 Vol. 6 大学章句 An Exegesis of the Great Learning: 20) After the ecstasy, one needs to extrapolate their general knowledge of the Li of the world into minute and novel details, and hence, keep being centered in the everyday moments of mundane life. (Chen 2000: 309-314)  

Among the three aspects of “thoroughly studying Li (穷理),” the ecstatic moment begs more attention since it reveals the overarching structure of Zhu Xi’s thought. The following chart illuminates the structure via illustrating Zhu Xi’s treatise of “On Ren (humaneness) (仁说).” I link my full translation of this treatise here, and I’ll read the most relevant few paragraphs in this treatise, and explain them later.

A Chart of Ren (Humaneness) according to Zhu Xi

“The being of Heaven and Earth consists in creativity. When things and people come into existence, they are endowed by Heaven and Earth with their natures. Because of this, the human heartmind—within which human nature is embodied—has virtues which embrace all, penetrate all and thus, lack nothing. Nevertheless, one word can sum them up: Ren (仁, humaneness). Let me try to explain in detail.

There are four virtues for the creativity of Heaven and Earth: initiation, permeation, harmonization, and integration. The virtue of initiation governs them all. In their operation, these virtues are manifested in the four seasons—the vital-energy of spring permeates them all .

Correspondingly, there are four virtues for the human heartmind: Ren, righteousness, ritual-propriety, and wisdom—the virtue of Ren embraces them all. When these virtues come forth and function, they are manifested in the human feelings of love, obligation, respect, and judiciousness—the feeling of commiseration pervades them all.

Therefore, when discussing the creativity of Heaven and Earth, if we simply say, ‘the initiative power of Qian (Heaven), the initiative power of Kun (Earth),’ then its four virtues and their functions are encapsulated.

For discussing the magnificence of the human heartmind, if we simply say, “Ren is what the human heartmind is,” then its four virtues and their functions are summarized.

So, the virtue of Ren is actually what the human heartmind—which is produced and sustained by the creativity of Heaven and Earth—consists in. It functions when the human heartmind engages with things. When feelings are not aroused, the virtue is already there. When feelings are aroused, it functions inexhaustibly.

If we can sincerely embody and preserve the virtue of Ren, then we have in it the fountain of all goodness and the root of all deeds. This is why the teachings of the Confucian school (Ruism) urge scholars to pursue, keenly and unceasingly, the virtue of Ren.“

As demonstrated by the chart, several categorical dyads have structured Zhu Xi’s philosophy. Firstly, with Li construed as principle, Qi (气) is the material vital-energy pervading the entire universe, the dynamics of which manifests the normativity of principles. The dyad of principle and vital-energy is thus, albeit with an emphasis on process and change, comparable to the one of form and matter in ancient Greek philosophy. Secondly, the relationship between Li and Qi is further interpreted as the one of Ti (体, substance) and Yong (用, function). The Ti of a thing is what the thing per se consists in in its enduring form, while its Yong is the manifested functions of the thing when it engages with other things. Thirdly, Xing (性, nature) and Qing (情, feeling) characterize the dimensions of human heartmind which correspond to the dyads “Li-Qi” and “Ti-Yong.” For Zhu Xi, human nature is equivalent to the Li or Ti aspect of the heartmind, while the nature is signified by four cardinal virtues of Ren, righteousness, ritual-propriety and wisdom. Human feelings are the Yong, viz., the manifested functions of Qi, aspect of the heartmind. Using a contemplative language, Zhu Xi also describes the aspect of principle, substance or nature of the heartmind as underlying one’s experience of inner peace and centrality prior to any concrete feeling aroused by external things. Therefore, another dyad of “non-aroused (未发)” and “being-aroused (已发)” indicates one’s respective experiences of spiritual formation in the different states of heartmind characterized by the aforementioned dyads.  

Understood as such, the system of Zhu Xi’s thought per the chart can be explained as follows: 

According to the Classic of Change, The nature of Tian is creativity. Creativity primarily means initiation. The initiative power of Tian is manifested jointly by the proactive Heaven (Qian, the most Yang hexagram) and the receptive Earth (Kun, the most Yin hexagram). There are four virtues, viz., four generic traits, of the creativity of Heaven and Earth: initiation (which means Tian creates everything from nothing), permeation (which means Tian’s creativity pervades everything), harmonization (which means everything dynamically co-exists within Tian), and integration (which means each created thing is endowed with a nature and all things comprise an interconnected whole within Tian). The virtue of initiation governs them all. These four virtues are manifested in the proceeding of cosmic vital-energy during the course of four seasons. The vital-energy of spring permeates them all.

Those four virtues are the principle and living substance of Tian’s creativity, while the four seasons manifest its vital-energy and function. Therefore, for discussing the creativity of Tian, when the initiative power of Qian (heaven) and the initiative power of Kun (earth) are mentioned,  both the four virtues and their functions are encapsulated.

The lower part of the chart is about human beings. It has a parallel structure to the upper one. Human beings are born from the process of cosmic creativity of Tian, and the endowed human nature is the virtue of Ren embedded in the human heartmind. There are four cardinal virtues for the heartmind, viz., Ren, righteousness, ritual-propriety, and wisdom, and the virtue of Ren embraces them all. When the heartmind is aroused and engages with things, the four virtues are manifested as four incipient moral feelings.

There are two alternative ways to name these four feelings. For Zhu Xi, they are the feelings of love, obligation, deference, and judiciousness. For Mengzi, they are the feelings of commiseration, shame and disgust, deference, and distinguishing right and wrong. Zhu Xi’s alternative way to name the feelings derive from Mengzi, but is more succinct. Overall, the feeling of love or commiseration pervades all the other feelings.

The four virtues are the principle, substance, nature or non-aroused status of the human heartmind. The four human feelings for Zhu Xi, which are the four moral incipient sprouts for Mengzi, manifest the vital-energy, function, feeling, or aroused status of the heartmind. Therefore, for discussing the magnificence of the human heartmind, once it is pointed out that Ren is what the heartmind consists in,  then both its four virtues and their functions are summarized.

In a word, Zhu Xi’s treatise of “On Ren” demonstrates the cosmological root of the distinctively good human nature, which is summarized by the cardinal human virtue, humaneness. While urging individuals to rediscover and nurture such a cosmically endowed human nature via cumulatively studying and practicing Li, Zhu Xi’s philosophy can be understood overall as an all-encompassing ethical metaphysics which aims to manifest the supreme harmonization of Tian’s creativity in the human world. 

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