“Finding the Self or Losing the Self: Authority and Allegiance in Stoicism, Early Christianity, and Ruism (Confucianism),” Buddhist-Christian Studies. 2026 (46): 43-56.
Abstract:
Spiritual authority and allegiance take strikingly different forms in Stoicism and Ruism (Confucianism) in comparison to early Christianity. Drawing on Pierre Hadot’s account of philosophy as a way of life and Michel Foucault’s analysis of the “care of the self,” a pre-Christian vision of philosophy emerges as transformative spiritual practice rather than mere analytic discourse. Within this horizon, Stoicism locates authority in a disciplined community of teachers and texts, yet ultimately in the autonomous exercise of reason capable of examining doctrine and experience alike. Early Christianity reconfigures authority through obedience to divine revelation mediated by ecclesial structures. Ruism articulates a distinctive model: while affirming hierarchies of heaven, earth, sovereign, parent, and teacher, it subjects all authority to the cosmic Dao as discerned through the conscientious heartmind of each self-cultivating person. Despite significant differences—especially regarding the relation of reason and emotion—Stoicism and Ruism converge in placing final authority within a genuine self transformed through sustained practice. On this basis, a transreligious theology of religious diversity becomes possible, integrating experiential exclusivity, nonconfessional particularity, and relational openness beyond standard typologies of exclusivism, particularism, inclusivism, and pluralism.
This article marks the first time I have brought Michel Foucault’s later thought into conversation with Pierre Hadot and Ruism. It is also the first time I have explicitly affirmed the similarity between Ruism and Stoicism in terms of their spiritual structure (rather than content).
When I read Foucault’s later work on the so-called hermeneutics of the subject, I was excited. I read it very quickly, as if reading a detective novel, with each page enticing me to turn to the next. It was one of the highlights of my reading last year.
I hope this article has done some justice to his wonderful thought during that period of his intellectual development.
Dr. Leah Kalmanson (University of North Texas) has reviewed Debating Transcendence: Creatio ex nihilo and Sheng Sheng in Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews (April 3, 2026). The review offers an excellent overview of the book’s central arguments and highlights its major contributions. Readers may find it a helpful introduction before reading the book itself.
One particularly insightful observation concerns methodology. Dr. Kalmanson writes: “At this point, I would have been interested to hear some of Song’s methodological commitments articulated in the language of Ruist scholarly practices, although this dimension is implicit in Song’s overall approach to Ruism as a way of life in other chapters.” I appreciate this thoughtful question. In response, I would emphasize that the book operates with two complementary levels of comparative methodology.
The first is developed in the opening two chapters, which clarify what theology means within the Ru tradition and articulate the general Ruist attitude toward learning from other traditions. The second is presented in Chapter Four, where I propose a concrete method for constructing comparative categories that make cross-cultural comparison both meaningful and philosophically rigorous. Regarding the first level, I draw extensively on classical Ruist sources to develop what I call a “rooted and open inclusivism.” For the second, I build primarily upon Dr. Robert C. Neville’s pragmatist methodology—revised through Jonathan Z. Smith’ hermeneutical approach—and argue that Neville’s method provides an appropriate framework for this rooted, open inclusivism.
Dr. Kalmanson’s observation therefore raises an important question, and I hope the clarification above further explains the point she perceptively noted in the second half of her comment.
2. Harvard-Yenching Institute Announcement
The Harvard-Yenching Institute has also announced the publication of the book on its website. I was a Harvard-Yenching Visiting Fellow from 2011 to 2013. During those two years, I devoted myself to careful study of Liu Shu-hsien and Friedrich Schleiermacher. Looking back, that period planted some of the earliest intellectual seeds that eventually grew into Debating Transcendence. It is especially meaningful to see the Institute publicizing the book as it approaches its centennial in 2028. I extend my best wishes for the continued flourishing of Asian studies in the United States and across the globe under the Institute’s aegis.
3. Washington College Magazine Feature
The Spring 2026 issue of Washington College Magazineincludes an interview conducted by the College’s Director of Communications, Mark Jolly-Van Bodegraven, featuring both my new book and my colleague Dr. Peter Weigel’s Reading Aquinas’s Five Ways: The Arguments for God in Summa Theologiae (Cambridge University Press, 2025).
The interview situates Debating Transcendence within the liberal arts tradition inaugurated by Aristotle, suggesting that asking and attempting to answer the deepest human questions liberates the mind, and that such intellectual freedom forms one of the foundations of a robust democracy.
The interview also discusses my co-authored chapter, “When the Fire Came: A Retelling of the Confucian Sacred Story,“ written with Dr. Anna Sun (Duke University) and Dr. Pauline Lee (Saint Louis University). I am also delighted to share that this chapter has been adopted by colleagues at Washington College as a course reading for an environmental literature class co-taught by professors of English and Art History. They have told me that it has become one of the most relevant and engaging readings for the course.
4. American Academy of Religion Book Panel
The 2026 Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Religion in Denver will feature a book panel on Debating Transcendence, co-sponsored by the Confucian Traditions Unit and the Comparative Theology Unit. The official announcement can be found here.
I very much look forward to the thoughtful discussions and intellectual exchanges that this panel will foster among colleagues and friends.
5. American Philosophical Association Book Panel
The 2027 Eastern Division Meeting of the American Philosophical Association in Boston will also host a book panel on Debating Transcendence, sponsored by the International Society for Chinese Philosophy. This gathering will provide an opportunity to engage once again with my doctoral advisor, Dr. Robert C. Neville, my dissertation reader, Dr. Stephen Angle, and several close academic friends. I look forward to a stimulating and enjoyable exchange of ideas.
Overall, I am deeply grateful for the warm reception the book has received so far. Seeing it generate thoughtful reviews, public discussions, classroom use, and scholarly panels is both encouraging and humbling. I hope these conversations will continue to advance comparative theology, Confucian studies, and cross-cultural philosophy in the years ahead.
In Spring 2026, Dr. Bin Song continued to assign contemplative exercises in the course “Introduction to Comparative Religion: Eastern” (PHL 112). Here are a couple of excellent examples:
Ben and Ziggy practice Buddhist mindfulness through calligraphy and drawing at a Vietnamese Buddhist temple near Baltimore.
Benjamin McCumber and Ziggy Angelos will graduate soon, so this is one of their last classes at the college. I worked with Ben in quite a few courses; he completed Religious Studies as his minor and will continue to study and practice clinical psychology in graduate school, which makes me very proud. Ziggy was a wonderful new student in my class, yet her level of understanding quickly revealed that being “new” in time does not mean being “new” in soul. She will continue to study art therapy in graduate school. I wish them both the very best!
Peter Anderson practices Ru meditation in a method of no-method.
Peter is a philosophy major, and he took two very different classes with me back-to-back this semester: the highly abstruse History of Modern Philosophy course, which included notoriously difficult thinkers such as Descartes, Berkeley, Spinoza, Leibniz, and Kant; and this course on Eastern Religions. Although brief and seemingly casual, the practice demonstrated in Peter’s video cites Gao Panlong (1562–1626), one of my favorite Ruist meditators, and captures the essence of the Ruist practice of quiet-sitting: a serene immersion in whatever and whenever one happens to be, within a civilization continuous with nature.
Hooray for these students—a very nice treat for a teacher heading into the coming summer!
Introduction to Philosophy (PHL 100 Washington College)
This course introduces the discipline of philosophy and its characteristic habits of thought and practice. Starting from the beginning of Western philosophy at ancient Greek, classical and contemporary readings are organized both chronically and thematically. Students will get familiar with major sub-disciplines and problems in philosophy such as metaphysics, ethics, logic, philosophy of science, hermeneutics, philosophy of religion, and political philosophy. Non-western philosophical traditions such as Ruism (Confucianism) and Buddhism will also be introduced in order to broaden conventional philosophical vistas. In general, the course is designed as reflecting philosophically and multi-culturally upon major divisions of human knowledge in modern university: religion, humanities, natural science, and social science.
History of Modern Philosophy (PHL 214 Washington College)
“History of Modern Philosophy” introduces major thinkers and schools of thought in the history of modern philosophy. Part I on “Enlightenment” investigates the major achievement, and the social and political background of modern philosophy. Part II on “Modern Scientific Revolution” introduces the scientific origin of the ideological transformations that define modern philosophy. Finally, Part III delves into the details of three representing modern philosophers’ thought: Descartes’ rationalism, Hume’s empiricism and the Kantian synthesis. Special acquired skills: students will learn how to make short videos to introduce their philosophical ideas to the public.
Ru and Confucianism (PHL/REL 394 Washington College)
This course introduces the philosophical concepts, sociological foundation, political implementation, and spiritual/religious practices of the Asian Ru (Confucian) tradition. While remaining sensitive to its varying characteristics through different historical periods, the course also presents Ruism’s development across Asian countries such as Korea, Japan, Vietnam and Indonesia, and studies its historical interaction with Western cultures. Students are encouraged to think over and practice Ruist insights in a broader context of philosophical and religious studies, while being able to compare it with other major Asian and Western philosophical and religious traditions. Special acquired skills: students will learn Meditation in Motion in its varying forms, such as breathing, sleeping, quiet-sitting and Taiji martial arts, to strengthen their mind-body general well-being and increase creativity and productivity.
For a 2018 teaching documentary, please click here.
For a 2020 Spring teaching documentary, please click here.
Introduction to Comparative Religion: Eastern (PHL/REL 112 Washington College)
This introductory course on Eastern religions aims to increase religious literacy by examining the philosophical, social, and spiritual–practical dimensions of four major traditions: Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism (Ruism), and Daoism. While focusing on these traditions, the course also attends to the historical and cultural distinctions among major Asian regions, including India, Nepal, Tibet, China, and Japan. Each unit studies a religious tradition in both chronological development and geographic-cultural diversity, while exploring shared themes such as meditation, the good life, and religious institutions.
Foundations of Morality (PHL 225, Fall 2020, Washington College)
This course offers theoretical and applied ethics, leveraging both Western and Eastern moral philosophies to address challenges inherent in leading a virtuous and good human life. Students will explore moral philosophies including virtue ethics, deontology, utilitarianism, stoicism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. Additionally, they will examine cognitive fallacies that can engender self-defeating emotional and behavioral patterns, such as perfectionism, damnation, bandwagon thinking, stereotyping, and lack of empathy. No prerequisites are required.
Global Wisdom and Literature (ENG/PHL/REL 294, 2022 Fall, Washington College, co-taught with Prof. Courtney Rydel from the English department.)
“Global Wisdom and Literature” (PHL/ENG 294, 2022 FALL) introduces and studies global wisdom traditions in an interdisciplinary endeavor of literary studies, philosophy, and religious studies. From the Mesopotamian mythology of Gilgamesh to the early modern Japanese Buddhist poetry of Matsuo Basho; from the rational self-defense of Socrates in the Apology to the passionate longing for the ineffable God mused by Sufis in Islamic mysticism; from the varying cities of the Roman Empire which signpost the Christian spiritual journey of Augustine in his Confessions to the downfall of the Confucian harmony of Tang Dynasty of China lamented by Du Fu’s Spring View, the great human tradition of global wisdom and literature will be explored to overcome the barriers of history, geography, ideology, genre, and academic disciplines. With the instruction and guidance of two WC professors (Prof. Courtney E. Rydel and Prof. Bin Song), students will be expected to acquire skills of intercultural and interdisciplinary competence which is pivotal to the real-world value of contemporary liberal arts education. This class counts for the distribution of Humanities and Fine Arts, the English major and minor, the Philosophy major and minor, the Religious Studies minor, the Humanities major, and the Medieval and Early Modern Studies minor. No Prerequisite.
Euro-Eccentrism: the Enlightenment and Confucianism (PHL/REL 494, 2023 Fall, Washington College) This course explores the ways how Western philosophy during the Enlightenment period (17th and 18th centuries) was developed under the influence of Confucianism with a focus on the works of Spinoza, Nicolas Malbranche, Leibniz, Christian Wolff, Voltaire, and Benjamin Franklin. It aims to provide a deeper understanding of the intertwining of Western and Non-Western Philosophies in history, and how the exchange and influence of different cultures and philosophies shape the development of human thought. The course examines the interactions between Asia and the West through trade, missionary activity, and cultural exchange, and how Confucianism was understood and adapted by these key Enlightenment thinkers. The larger context of the course is to diversify the philosophy curriculum currently taught in American universities and colleges. Through primary and secondary sources analysis, contemplative and reflective activities, and research paper, students will gain a fuller and critical understanding of modern philosophy, particularly regarding its Euro-Eccentric dimension.
Buddhism: Philosophy, Meditation and Ritual (PHL/REL 294, 2024 Fall, Washington College, co-taught with Prof. Jon McCollum at the Music department)
This course offers an in-depth introduction of Buddhism’s origins, evolution, and manifestations across various cultures. Co-taught by Professors Bin Song (Philosophy and Religion) and Jon McCollum (Music), it delves into Buddhism’s journey from its Hindu roots to its development into Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana traditions in both Asian and Western contexts. Covered topics include philosophical principles, meditative practices, and cultural expressions such as rituals and monasticism, examining their interaction with society and politics. Leveraging interdisciplinary expertise in philosophy, theology, religious studies, ritual studies, ethnography, and musicology, this course aims to provide students with a comprehensive understanding of Buddhism’s societal and personal impacts. It motivates students to explore practical and philosophical insights that enhance their intercultural competency, leadership skills, and overall well-being. No prerequisites are required.
Free Will and the Foundations of Responsibility (First Year Seminar, 2025 Fall, Washington College)
Are we free? What does it mean to have free will, and why does it matter? This First-Year Seminar explores the timeless philosophical problem of free will, a question that connects deeply to moral responsibility, legal accountability, self-development, and well-being. Students will examine key positions in contemporary philosophy, such as compatibilism and incompatibilism, as well as concepts like determinism and the theory of alternative possibilities. Through analyzing arguments and counterarguments, students will develop critical thinking skills to understand, evaluate, and imagine solutions to these enduring questions. The course also explores contributions from science—quantum mechanics, neuroscience, and social psychology—to see how empirical findings inform this ongoing debate. By the end of the course, students will formulate their own views on free will and learn how to apply these ideas to personal growth, academic challenges, and future careers.
Courses under Preparation:
History of Contemporary Philosophy (19th centuries onward)
Fall 2025 has been a remarkably fruitful teaching season. I taught a First-Year Seminar on “Free Will and Responsibility” for the first time, with fifteen excellent first-year students. I also co-taught “Introduction to Buddhism” for the second time, which surveyed Buddhist thought from ancient India through all major historical and modern branches across different countries, regions, and continents. Most importantly, I taught “Foundations of Morality” for the third time, enrolling nineteen students.
The first half of “Foundations of Morality” is theoretical, covering major Western ethical traditions, including Aristotelian virtue ethics, Stoicism, medieval Christian ethics, Kantian deontology, Mill’s utilitarianism, and existentialism, as well as foundational elements of Buddhist and Confucian (Ruist) ethics. The second half of the course is entirely practical. I used Dr. Elliot Cohen’s The New Rational Therapy: Thinking Your Way to Serenity, Success, and Profound Happiness (Jason Aronson, 2006) and the framework of Logic-Based Therapy (LBT)—a philosophically sophisticated form of cognitive behavioral therapy—to apply ethical theory to practical questions of the good life, such as how to address self-defeating emotions and behaviors.
Throughout the semester, I experimented with a variety of hands-on, in-class practices, including contemplative listening, silent quiet-sitting meditation, ethical case studies, assignments involving the creation of fictional “cults,” and simulated philosophical counseling sessions. The final project required students to develop their own case using anonymous, fictional, or publicly known figures, and then apply philosophical and religious resources to address the case by following the structured method of LBT.
I am proud of the students’ final projects, and several stand out as particularly strong examples:
Isabella M. Sorhegui analyzes the case of Nick Kyrgios, a well-known professional tennis player. Her careful and nuanced use of Buddhist resources is especially admirable.
John Colby Andrews takes up the video game Skull Kid, beginning with humorous and satirical critiques of moralistic teaching and later developing a thoughtful and well-supported engagement with Confucian wisdom.
Chase Corley analyzes the case of Kevin Love, a prominent NBA player. As a student-athlete himself, Chase demonstrates a strong sensitivity to the psychological dimensions of athletic life and shows real potential as a future coach.
Kayla Noyala approached the project with exceptional seriousness. She conducted an interview with an anonymous family member and offered well-grounded and thoughtful philosophical guidance.
Stefanos L. Georgiou wrote a fictional case centered on a student football player and delivered a very strong final presentation. He took seriously the feedback I offered on his two earlier case-study essays and worked diligently to revise both his thinking and his writing style. The final presentation is detailed, well-balanced, and something of which I am very proud:
Daniel Poitevin’s role-play project is particularly impressive. He alternated between the roles of therapist and counselee with clarity, insight, and philosophical depth.
At a broader level, I advocate an integrated approach to mental health and the good life. In areas of human life where free will and responsibility continue to play a meaningful role, philosophy—and the humanities more generally—can and should make substantial contributions to healthy living. However, when psychological conditions are rooted primarily in physiology and free will plays little or no role, the traditional doctor–patient medical model of mental health must still be employed. This integrated framework underlies my approach to philosophical counseling in this course. By teaching it within a public liberal arts classroom, and in a manner appropriate to that setting, I also aim to experiment with ways of teaching “self-cultivation” inspired by the Confucian (Ruist) tradition.
